important linguistics terms

General Terms

TERM DEFINITION EXAMPLE GERMAN TERM generative grammar A formally explicit grammar which defines the set of grammatical sentences in a language; the term has been introduced by Chomsky in this sense, and is also more generally used for the grammar(s) developed by Chomsky and the research community around him. S -> NP VP VP-> V NP NP -> John, Mary V -> likes generates: John likes Mary Mary likes John Generative Grammatik language acquisition The process or result of learning a particular aspect of language, or the language as a whole; the term is used with reference both to the learning of a first language by children (child language acquisition) and to the learning of further languages or varieties (second language or foreign language acquisition). What is your native language? (Erst-/Zweit-) Spracherwerb morphology The branch of grammar that studies how words are formed from morphemes. Morphologie phonetics The study of the characteristics of human sound-making, especially of those sounds used in speech; generally divided into articulatory, acoustic, and auditory branches. Phonetik phonology The study of the sound systems of languages, and of the general or universal properties displayed by these systems. Phonologie pragmatics the study of the use of language in context Pragmatik semantics The study of meaning in language; in generative grammar: how the meanings of words combine to form complex meanings of phrases and sentences. Semantik syntax The study of the rules governing the way words and morphemes are combined to form phrases and sentences Syntax

Terms for Syntax (and Morphology)

TERM DEFINITION EXAMPLE GERMAN TERM adjunct an optional element of a grammatical construction, whose removal does not affect the structural identity of the construction. [In the theory of generative grammar you are learning in class:] An adjunct is attached to a node A by creating a second, higher node A, and attaching the adjunct as a daughter to this higher node A., and as a sister to the lower (original) node A. This operation is called adjunction [G. Adjunktion], and the adjunct can be said to adjoin to A [G. an A adjungieren]. Only words are assumed to adjoin to words, and only phrases are assumed to adjoin to phrases. The notion adjunct contrasts with argument. yellow in a yellow chair sometimes in John snores sometimes Adjunkt adverb a type of word that usually occurs as an adjunct to a VP or to a sentence. It most typically expresses such notions as time, place, manner, instrument, or circumstance. Sometimes considered a grammatical category separate from adjectives. often, happily, carefully Adverb adverbial an element of clause structure which functions like an adverb. However, while the adverb is always a single word, the adverbial may also be a phrase with more than one word. in the zoo, with all her strength Adverbiale affix a functional bound morpheme, typically short and with a functional meaning. re in re-write -s in cat-s Affix aspect a grammatical category which relates to the internal temporal structure of a situation perfective, imperfective, progressive, habitual, durative, punctual, iterative Aspekt auxiliary verb a verb which helps to express such grammatical distinctions as tense, mood, and aspect. English auxiliaries: do, have, be English modal aux.: may, might, will, can, ... Hilfsverb, Auxiliar bound morpheme a morpheme which cannot stand alone to make a word, but must be combined with something else within a word. Contrasts with free morpheme. plural -s in tree-s, cran- in cran-berry [Preisel- in Preisel-beere] Gebundenes Morphem circumfix an affix with two parts, one placed to the left, the other placed to the right of the element the affix attaches to. German ge -__-t in ge-leg-t Zirkumfix clause A type of grammatical construction intermediate between a sentence and a phrase, containing such major functional elements as subject and verb; classified into independent (main) clause and dependent (subordinate) clause. In the theory we are learning, a CP (minus any CPs that may be embedded in it). Mary thinks that it is raining: main clause: Mary thinks; embedded clause: that it is raining main clause = Hauptsatz subordinate clause = Nebensatz composition or compounding formation of new words by putting together roots or stems (see below) or words. The result of composition is called a compound. highschool chicken thief Komposition constituent In syntactic analysis: a part of a larger structure which forms a distinct syntactic unit within that larger structure. In a tree diagram, a constituent is represented as a node of the tree. Usually, only a continuous sequence can form a constituent. all bracketed elements in [[under][[the][sofa]]] Konstituente coordination ('list' with and, or) the linking of two or more elements as conjuncts in a coordinate structure [G. koordinierte Struktur], usually with the help of a conjunction [G. (nebenordnende) Konjunktion] such as and, or. Mary and John run and hide, der Tisch und die Stühle Koordination declarative a type of main clause typically used to make a statement; contrasts with interrogative (question) and imperative. John is sleeping. Hans schläft. Deklarativsatz derivation formation of new words by adding affixes. sing-er Derivation finite verb A verb which carries tense, number, and mood distinctions. Finite verbs can occur on their own in an independent clause. Contrasts with non-finite verbs, which are infinitives or participles. John has sung: finite: has non-finite: sung finites Verb free morpheme a morpheme which can stand alone to make a word by itself. Contrasts with bound morpheme. woman, smart, ..., blue in blueberry [G. blau in Blaubeere] Freies Morphem function word A word which has little or no meaning of its own but which has a grammatical function. [This definition for getting an initial sense; ultimately function words have abstract meanings in formal semantics.] the, of, and; have in I have seen her. Funktionswort head-final a language or maximal projection is called head-final if the head standardly appears in final position in its maximal projection, following any specifiers and complements. German VP: [Bücher lesen] Lg.: Japanese (kopffinal) head-initial a language or maximal projection in which the head standardly precedes its complement(s). (Usage is a bit fuzzy where specifiers are concerned.) English VP: [read books] Lg.: English (kopfinitial) infix an affix which is placed inside of the element it attaches to. Tagalog -um in sulat, s-um-ulat Infix inflection formation of grammatical variants of a word. book, book-s sing, sing-s Flexion lexical word a morpheme/word which has a dictionary meaning. cat, take, green Lexikalisches Wort mood the grammatical expression of the degree or kind of reality that the speaker attributes to the rest of a sentence. It is often expressed by the finite verb, where typical mood distinctions are those between indicative [G. Indikativ], subjunctive [G. Konjunktiv], and imperative [G. Imperativ]. It is also often expressed by modal verbs [G. Modalverben], such as may, can, shall, must. Indicative: that he goes dass er geht Subjunctive:/Konj.: that he go dass er gehe/ginge Modus morpheme Traditional approximate definition: the minimal unit carrying meaning. More careful but less informative definition: The minimal unit relevant to morphological and syntactic analysis. tree-s consists of two morphemes tree and -s Morphem paradigm the full set of inflected forms exhibited by some lexical item or class of lexical items. [What you see on the right is one paradigm.] sg. pl. 1st am are 2nd are are 3rd is are Paradigma prefix an affix which precedes the element it is attached to. un- in un-likely Präfix root a morpheme from a lexical class, typically V, N, A, from which a lexical word is built (by adding affixes). sing in sing-er Wurzel sentence 1. traditionally, any utterance or sequence of words which is regarded as capable of standing alone to express a coherent thought; 2. in generative grammar, the largest constituent that is capable of syntactic characterization. – In the theory we are learning, an IP or CP that is not embedded in higher structure. Der Bär schüttelte sich, nachdem er gebadet hatte. Satz stem a morphological constituent larger than the root and smaller than the word. Derivational affixes are inside of the stem, and inflectional affixes attach to the stem. word: singers stem: singer root: sing Stamm suffix an affix which follows the element it is attached to -s in tree-s Suffix tense the grammatical expression of the time of what is said in the rest of in the sentence; traditionally classified into past, present, and future, with other contrasts recognized depending on the language. sing, sang, has hung, had sung, will sing Tempus word The smallest unit of grammar which can stand alone. tree is a word, tree-s is a word, -s is not a word. Wort

Terms for Semantics (and Pragmatics)

TERM DEFINITION EXAMPLE GERMAN TERM antonymy the sense relationship between words (or expressions) of opposition with respect to some component of meaning. Antonyms: words (or expressions) that are opposite with respect to some component of their meaning. bad - good Antonymie assertion (i) statement; a sentence which presents information as true, as opposed to sentences that ask questions, issue commands, etc. (ii) that part of the information encoded in a sentence which is presented by the speaker as true, as opposed to that portion which is presupposed. Peter stopped smoking on Jan.1. asserts that Peter has not been smoking since Jan.1. Assertion, Behauptung cancel an implicature Since implicatures are not logical entailments but 'soft' inferences, it is usually possible to make them go away by explicitly saying something that contradicts the implicature; this is called cancelling the implicature. [I wonder if any of the boys went to the party.] Oh yes, some of the boys went to the party, in fact all of them. (eine Implikatur "löschen") compositionality a view or principle in formal semantics, according to which the meaning of a larger syntactic constituent is derived from the meanings of its parts. extension of [red car] is extension of [red] intersected with extension of [car] Kompositionalitäts-prinzip connotation the set of associations (personal or communal) that the use of a word evokes. Contrasts with denotation. winter: cold, with snow, skiing, ... Konnotation constative = statement. Used on contrast to performative. Mary is opening the door. contradiction a sentence that cannot be true, or two sentences that cannot both be true This married man is a bachelor. Widerspruch, Kontradiktion coreference relation between two phrases, typically DPs, that are interpreted as referring to the same entity. In linguistic representations, coreference is typically represented by coindexing. [Lisa]i said that [she]i would come. Koreferenz declarative see syntax section defeasible An inference is defeasible if it is possible to cancel it by adding additional premises to the original ones. Everyone I talke to likes ice-cream ~> Everyone likes ice-cream. demand (command, request) sentence function which is typically realized by an imperative sentence; characteristic for this function: The speaker wants to get the listener to do something. (Please) pick John up at the airport! Forderung (Befehl, Bitte) denotation (also: referential meaning) good approximation to begin with: the set of elements in the real world picked out by a linguistic expression. Denotation of [John]: the person John. Denotation of [red]: the set of red individuals. Denotation entailment intuitively: a relation between twosentences in which one sentence follows from the other sentence. More precisely: a relation between two sentences in which the truth of one sentence guarantees the truth of the other sentence. a. Prince is a dog. b. Prince is an animal. (a. entails b.) Implikation, logische Folgerung exclamation sentence function which can be realized by declaratives and interrogatives, also without a finite element in C; characteristic for this function: The speaker expresses some emotion (such as surprise, amazement). John has three cars! (declarative) How can John have three cars! (interrogative) extension essentially the same as denotation, though often used in contrast to intension, and as part of a formal semantic analysis in which all expressions have an extension. woman - extension: set of all women - intension: ~female person Extension homophony relation between words with the same pronunciation but different meanings. Homophones are words with the same pronunciation but different meanings. light: 1. not heavy 2. illumination Homophonie illocutionary relating to the act that is performed by a speaker by virtue of an utterance The speaker expresses amazement that... illokutionär imperative sentence type which is typically used for commands, demands, and requests Open the window! Imperativ implicature also conversational implicature; a 'soft' inference based on an addressee's assumption that the speaker is following the conversational maxims interrogative the sentence type in which questions are typically expressed Is Mary's watch broken? intension intuitively, the content of an expression; contrasts with extension (see extension) paraphrase either of two sentences that can be said to have the same meaning, and that differ in the words used or in their structure 1. I gave the book to Eric. 2. I gave Eric the book. Paraphrase performative Performative utterances are used to do something, rather than to say that something is or is not the case. They are 'automatically true' (or 'always true' or 'have no truth-value', depending on who you ask). (Explicit) performative: I promise to be there at 3.00. Primary performative: I'll be there at 3.00. performative Äußerung polysemy association of a lexical item with different but related meanings. bright: 1. shining 2. intelligent Polysemie possible worlds hypothetical (imagined, non-real) scenarios. In philosophy of language and in formal semantics, a formal construct of the theory that is important in modeling such hypothetical scenarios, and in modeling intensions. mögliche Welten presupposition that which a speaker assumes (takes for granted) in saying a sentence, as opposed to what is actually asserted. Presuppositions come from lexical items or from constructions. A standard semantic analysis of presuppositions is that they must be satisfied for the sentence to be true or false. Peter stopped drinking beer for breakfast on January 1st. presupposes that before January 1st, Peter drank beer for breakfast. Präsupposition presupposition accomodation Typically the content of a presupposition is known by speaker and hearer. However, if the hearer of an utterance did not already know what is presupposed, she may be ready to add that to her knowledge (so as to make everything coherent). The brother of my girl-friend is coming to visit. presupposes that there is a unique brother of my girl-friend. Even if the hearer did not know this, she may be ready to assume it's true and add it to her knowledge. proposition The intension (meaning) of a statement, ignoring the illocutionary force of the statement. Intuitively equivalent to a 'state of affairs': the state of affairs described by the statement. (It is true that) Mary is opening the door. Proposition question sentence function which is typically realized by an interrogative sentence; characteristic for this function: The speaker requests information from the listener. Did John arrive at 3.00? Frage reference denotation, extension; in the simplest cases, the relation between a syntactic phrase such as a DP and an individual or thing in the real world (see denotation) Referenz scalar implicature an implicature involving elements that are ordered on a scale, and deriving from the maxime of quantity (be informative!). John has 3 cows. implicature: John does not have 4 cows. scale here: 1, 2, 3, 4, ... Skalare Implikatur speech acts the kind of activity a speaker performs with his or her utterance. committing to the truth of a certain state of affairs (Mary has arrived.), requesting information (Has Mary arrived?), declaring a particular change in the world (I open the meeting.) Sprechakte statement sentence function which is typically realized by a declarative sentence; characteristic for this function: - The speaker asserts the truth, commits to the truth of the statement. - The speaker also wants the listener to accept the truth of the statement. (controversial) John arrived at 3.00. synonymy the relationship between words (or expressions) of sameness of meaning in some or all contexts. Synonyms: words (or expressions) that have the same meaning in some or all contexts. automobile - car Synonymie

Mathematical Notions

TERM DEFINITION EXAMPLE GERMAN TERM empty set The set that contains no elements.  { } leere Menge intersection The set of all elements that are in both sets A and B. {1,3}  {3,4} = {3} Schnittmenge subset A is a subset of B means that every element in A is also contained in B. {1,2}  {1,2,5} Teilmenge union The set of all elements that are either in A or in B or in both sets. {1,3} {3,4} = {1,3,4}  Vereinigung

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Terms for Phonology (and Phonetics)

TERM DEFINITION EXAMPLE GERMAN TERM acoustic phonetics the study of the physical properties of speech sound, as transmitted between mouth and ear; usually conducted with the help of computer programs that analyze speech recordings and visualize their properties. akustische Phonetik allophone Two allophones of a phoneme are two sounds that are in complementary distribution, and are both derived from the same underlying phoneme. In German, is a phoneme, with the allophones and . Allophon alveolar ridge see picture Zahndamm assimilation a phonetic or phonological process by which a sound becomes more similar to, or takes on one or more properties of, another sound in its environment. Assimilation auditory phonetics also perceptual phonetics; the study of the perceptual responses to speech sounds, as mediated by ear, auditory nerve, and brain. auditive Phonetik cartilage Knorpel cavity (a) hollow or empty space (b) hole or bad part of a tooth (a) Hohlraum (b) Loch im Zahn complementary distribution Two sounds A and B are in complementary distribution if they do not occur in the same environment. Often, this means that one of the two sound occurs in one environment only, while the other sound occurs in all other possible environments. In German, occurs only after back vowels, while occurs in other environments but never after back vowels. komplementäre Verteilung consonant speech sound produced with a significant constriction of the airflow in the oral tract. p, f, m Konsonant corona tip/blade of the tongue (see picture) Korona diphthong a sequence of two vowel qualities in the same syllable; classified as either a single (changing) vowel or as a sequence of two vowels, depending on language and theory. au, ai, ou Diphthong dorsum body of the tongue (see picture) Dorsum esophagus 'pipe' upward from the stomach Speiseröhre inventory the set of sounds (phonemes) used in underlying representations in a given language The inventory of English includes , but not or (But see footnote 1) (Laut-)Inventar larynx part of the human anatomy on top of the trachea; the larynx is most noticeable in the adult male neck, where it 'sticks out' as what is known as the Adam's apple. The main non-speech function of the larynx is to close off the trachea and the lungs in the process of swallowing food. The speech-functions of the larynx are taken on by the vocal cords (see separate definition), which are inside of the larynx. These functions include the production of the voicing of sounds, and the production of [h] and of the glottal stop. Kehlkopf, Larynx Natural class (of sounds of a given language) The sets of sounds picked out by a feature or a combination of features. This set must include all and only the sounds picked out by this feature or combination of features. [+high] : [i, u] ('high vowels') [-high, -low] : [e, o] ('mid vowels') Natürliche Klasse obstruent sounds that are produced with a build-up of air-pressure in the vocal tract. Many obstruents have a voiceless and a voiced version, of which the voiceless one is considered unmarked. The obstruents comprise plosives, fricatives, and affricates. p, s, ts Obstruent (soft, hard) palate see picture (weicher, harter) Gaumen pharynx the tubular cavity which constitutes the throat above the larynx Rachenraum, Pharynx phoneme (traditionally defined as the smallest unit that can make a difference in meaning; here also:) a sound that is in the inventory of the language. (see allophone) Phonem phonetic representation (PR) 'what we hear or say'; a form that is either identical to the underlying representation or derived from it by the application of phonological rules. phonetische Form phonetics the study of the physical and physiological aspects of human sound production and perception; generally divided into articulatory, acoustic, and auditory branches. Phonetik phonology the study of the sound systems of languages, and of the general or universal properties displayed by these systems. Phonologie places of articulation sonorant sound not produced with a build-up of air-pressure in the vocal tract; typically voiced. The sonorants comprise the nasal stops, the liquids, the glides, and the vowels. n, l, j, i Sonorant, Sonorlaut trachea 'pipe' that connects the lungs and the larynx Luftröhre transcription A method of writing down the pronunciation of a speech sound, word or utterance in a systematic and consistent way. for (orthographic) 'think' Lautschrift, Transkription, phonetische Umschrift underlying representation (UR) 'what we memorize'; in phonology, the pronunciation as specified in the lexical entries of morphemes or words. In a standard cognitive understanding of the grammar, this is the way speakers memorize the pronunciation; part of the postulated entries in the mental lexicon. phonetische Form vocal tract the whole of the air passage above the larynx; it can be divided into nasal tract (the air passage above the soft palate, within the nose), and oral tract (the mouth and pharyngeal areas). Ansatzrohr, Vokaltrakt velum (=soft palate) see picture. Velum, weicher Gaumen vowel speech sound produced without a significant constriction of the airflow in the oral cavity. a, i, o Vokal Footnote 1: These phonemes do not exist as part of the systematic phonology of English, although both these phonetic forms occur in English. The boy's name "Hugh" starts with and the monster lives in "Loch Ness", which has .